Miscarriages of justice helped to change investigating

Miscarriages of justice helped to change investigating Investigative interviewing is of paramount importance in every legal system in the world. The development of Investigative interviewing has led to the hope that positive reaction would be received from witnesses and reliability of evidence would be achieved. However, various cases of miscarriages of justice has occurred causing lack of confidence in the criminal justice system. The purpose of this study is to learn more about how cases of miscarriages of justice have helped to change investigative interviewing practices for the better. It is hoped that information from this study may be useful in identifying the improvements in investigative interviewing as a result of cases of miscarriages of justice. One area of policing that involves considerable face-to-face interaction with members of the public and where expectations of both police and public are likely to be influential and where relations of trust and confidence are vital is when police officers interview witnesses of crime (Roberts, 2010). In the past, police officers lacked confidence in themselves and their abilities, and they constantly assumed that every suspect was guilty therefore failing to extract accurate and reliable evidence, had poor interviewing skills and where unprofessional in the approach in which they carried out their interviews.  In any police inquiry, police officers may be interested in only a proportion of the information that a witness can provide (Robert, 2010).They resorted to violence and verballing during interviews and this resulted in false confessions from suspects. In the past, investigators in both the public sector and the police saw interviews as a means of gaining a confession, rather than gathering accurate information and a full account (Shawyer and Walsh, 2007). Confessions could vary from voluntary confession where there is no existence of external factors, coerced compliant confession such as aggressive questioning and coerced internalized confession where the interviewee beliefs he committed the crime due to pressure and stress put on them during the interviewing process. Vulnerable suspects such as children and people with physical or mental challenges are prone to coerced internalized confession thereby resulting to miscarriages of justice. Miscarriage of justice arose as a result of police malpractice and incompetence, inadequate prosecution processes, problematic trial practices and failure of authorities to protect citizens from known dangers (Adler and Gray, 2010). Fishers inquiry 1977 showed wrongly convictions of three youths who confessed to the murder of Maxwell Confait. His report highlighted that two of the youth were vulnerable suspects and that there were tendencies for the confessions to be achieved by violence, hectoring or bullying. There was no evidence to show that the replies of these suspects were said freely and accurately recorded. Fisher recommended that a Royal commission examine the law and procedure relating to the prosecution of offenders and thus creating a better framework regulating custodial questioning of suspects by the police. The Royal commission on criminal procedure commissioned a series of research studies including one that examined the police role in the investigation of offences (Adler and Gray, 2010). The Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure believed it was essential that the public have confidence in the method of investigation by the police in order to enhance co-operation. In 1975 the Guildford Four were jailed for life for bombing pubs in Guildford. The case was abolished after the four men had spent 15 years in jail. The case against them was found to be flawed and the credibility of the notes of interview was undermined as being not written up immediately. In 1974, The Birmingham Six were also convicted IRA bombers accused of killing 21 people and injuring more than 160. They spent 16 years in jail before being released in 1991 after the forensic evidence which had formed much of the basis for the case was found to be questionable. Further the Maguire Seven (1976) including six members of the same family were imprisoned for handling explosives. The scientific evidence which formed the basis of the case was later discredited and the case overturned in 1991(Green, 2009). All these miscarriages of justice emphasized the flaws in the criminal justice system. This brought about the introduction of Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE), 1984. The act pr ovided a Code of Practice which covered various areas such as detention, treatment and questioning by police and tape recording of interviews. The code of practice gave detainees the right to notify someone of their arrest, access to a free legal advice, no change to the rights to remain silent. It also emphasized the improvement in the area of note taking and tape recording, the presence of an appropriate adult when a vulnerable suspect is interviewed, the treatment of the suspect in custody and regulations on which the interview would be based on. It set out the right balance between the power of the police and the freedom and rights of the public. The secrecy of police stations was challenged: officers became used to seeing solicitors, social workers, family members and researchers in custody areas (Dixon, 2010).The purpose was to introduce the use of tape recording during interviews and eradicate the use of violence and verballing to get a confession. However, adequate training was lacked in the use of tape recording by police officers therefore creating grounds for them to continue interviewing without tape recorders hence interrogation took place in an environment which increases the vulnerability of the suspects and maximizes the authority and control of the police (Green, 2009). The court became aware of officers lack of compliance to PACE and increased pressure in order to ensure compliance by making the investigators listen and review their performance. The use of such inappropriate tactics, however, was found to decrease after the introduction of PACE (Irving and Mckenzie, 1989). However, police interviewing was still poor even after the PACE was introduced and this was due to inadequate training in interviewing. Police officers have the mentality that interviewing skills cannot be acquired in class but in practice and therefore tend to act like their mentors who hardly portray the correct skills. Police officers training was more on taking reports rather than gathering information. In the case of Cardiff 3, who were alleged with the murder of Lynette White in 1988 spent four years in prison before it was admitted that they were victims of miscarriage of justice. Although the police officers used tape recording and a solicitor was present during the interview it was observed that the approach taken by the officer was one of hostility and intimidation to the suspect. The development of DNA science and pressure placed by Satish Sekar helped to identify the actual murderer and proved their innocence. In the case of Thomas Henron who was on trial for the murder of a young girl, this was not a miscarriage of justice but rather a failure in investigative approach. The investigation was based on pressurizing the suspect, offering of unreasonable incentive and falsification of the witness evidence. These provided a background of distrust of police and shaken confidence in beliefs about the matchless superiority of English justice (Dixon, 2010). These cases emphasized th e need for improvements in the interrogation of suspects and the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) published the first national training for interviewing known as the PEACE approach to investigative interviewing which was introduced in 1992 which was aimed at ensuring that investigators developed adequate skills in order to conduct interview with integrity and ensure interviews conducted are in line with the law. Following a series of miscarriages of justice in the UK where police interviewing methods were severely criticized an ethics-based approach to interviewing was devised that aimed to minimize the risks of unreliable evidence and negative reactions from witnesses (Robert, 2010). An investigative interview is a structured conversation with a party to a crime with the aim of recording that persons account of events (Green, 2009). Investigative interviewing was developed by a group of psychologists and police practitioners (Dixon, 2010). The role of investigative interview is to approach interviews with an open mind and fairness (even if questioning has to be persistent) in order to obtain accurate and reliable information from suspects, witnesses and victims with the aim of discovering the truth and testing the information received against what the officer already knows or has reasonably established and also bearing in mind that vulnerable people, whether victims, witnesses or suspects m ust be treated with particular consideration at all times (National Crime Faculty, 1996, p.18) . PEACE is an acronym for P-Planning and Preparation, E-Engage and Explain, A-Account, C-Closure, and E-Evaluation. PEACE was a five day training organized to improve investigative interviewing. Planning and preparation aids in understanding the essence of the interview and the impact on the investigation. The officer should highlight areas to focus based on points to prove and possible defences. These points should be compared with evidence received. All evidence received in favor of the interviewee should also be highlighted as the investigator has a duty to be open-minded. Adequate knowledge of PACE also helps the officer to be ready prior to the interview. Planning and preparation is essential has it helps the officer prepare and plan for an interview before the commencement hence achieving the aim and objective of the interview. The investigator explains the purpose and expectations of the interview to the suspect thus creating the right atmosphere. During this stage it is essential to create a rapport with the suspect as this makes the suspect comfortable with the investigator. In order to achieve rapport the investigator has to pay adequate attention to the process of social skills cultivates an active listening strategy habit. There are three classes of witnesses, the compliant witness, reluctant witness and the hostile witness. Compliant witnesses are individuals who wish to cooperate fully with the police and are keen to pass information to them. Reluctant witnesses may not wish to interact with the police and may not be forthcoming with information. Hostile witnesses are individuals who may be overtly hostile to the police, may refuse to give information, and may even attempt to disrupt interviews (Robert, 2010). In order to get substantive and quality account an investigator could either use the cognitive interview or the free recall interview but in a situation where the suspect is being difficult the investigator could use conversation management. Free call allows the interviewee to fully articulate their account followed by probing to obtain uncontaminated detail. Conversation management on the other hand is usually with suspects or uncooperative interviewees who require free recall followed by prob ing and challenges where appropriate. Cognitive interview is a full cognitive reinstatement with a compliant interviewee who is willing to cooperate fully (Green, 2009). When closing the interview the investigator ensures that accurate account has been received thereby creating a positive impression to the public and preventing negative emotional reactions such as anger and anxiety. The investigator also has to maintain rapport in order to minimize the witness anxiety and distress and maximizes the disclosure of useful information. Evaluating the quality of the information received performance of the interviewer in terms of self evaluation and identifying other information that would be needed for the interview. Training was organized for all police officers in order to educate them on the PEACE model. The facilitators of the training were majorly inexperienced trainers rather than qualified investigators. The police officers did not embrace the PEACE model at first and this affected the purposed role of the model. Clarke and Milne (2001) conducted a national evaluation of PEACE by examining interviewers investigative skills when conducting interviews with suspects and witnesses. They found a great gap in the interviewing skills of both the trained and untrained officers of the PEACE model. However, improvements were noted in the area of legal requirements, ethical approach and questioning skills rather than the communication aspects of the interview or the structural development of the interviewees account. Instead of the police to focus on the verbal and non- verbal actions of the interviewee and using that as a base for the next question their focus was on statement taking and this therefore caused poor recording of account and interviewing. They also observed poor interviewing skills as officers were using less of cognitive interviewing and less conversation management. This caused officers to be frustrated and allowing them return to the old ways of interviewing. The original PEACE model w as rigid as it assumed that all interviewees would be co-operative with the interviewer and this was not the case in most interviews. Although the PEACE model was generally accepted as it offered an excellent framework for investigative interviews and its principles were sound it was still obvious that a reform was needed (Green, 2009). In the years following the implementation of PEACE certain forces recognized that the one size fits all model was not sufficient to cater for all needs (Griffiths, Milne, 2005). Crimes which were regarded as serious such as murder required a more effective and ethical interview process. Clark and Milne (2001) made 19 recommendations and the focus was on interview guidance, supervision and training. They recommended an interview supervisor policy because they observed that the quality of the interviews where better when supervisors were present. Supervision would enable efficient use of the interview guidance and help assess the skills of the officers thereby indicating areas where improvements are required. These recommendations were taken up by the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) and further developed into the ACPO Investigative Interviewing Strategy: A national initiative. They also observed that the officers were bombarded with so much to learn when they had not grasped the earlier stage. A five tiered structure approach was introduced to improve the quality of investigative interviewing for various levels of officers. Tier 1 was meant for Foundation for probationers and it focused on basic investigation highlighting the importance of free recall and conversation management in obtaining account when carrying out an interview. Tier 2 focused on uniform investigators and detectives and enhanced cognitive interview was taught in this stage. Tier 3 was meant for specialists. This tier looks into enhanced cognitive interviews in advanced interviewing of suspects and specialist interviews that is, interviewing of vulnerable witnesses. Tier 4 was meant for interview supervisors who do not necessarily have to have the skills of the specialist but must at least be trained up to Tier 2 as these supervisors duty is to identify areas in which trainings are required, ensure ethical approach is used when conducting an interview and standards are maintained (Green, 2009). Tier 5 focuses on interview advisors, managers, coordinator for specialist interviews whose role is to advise senior investigative officers on essential interviewing strategies for serious and complex crime. Thinking of an investigation in this holistic way has brought great benefit to the overall strategy of a major inquiry some of which are highly complex long term investigations requiring intimate knowledge of detail and consistency (Green, 2009). Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) and the National Policing Improvement Agency (NPIA) sponsored a program which is aimed at enhancing improvement in the area of professional capability and experience of investigators. This resulted in enhancement in the role of supervisors and interview advisors to ensuring officers conduct investigative interviewing at a professional level. It is clear, therefore that poor investigative interviewing would lead to several cases of miscarriages of justice. The fact that most officers views on interviews where based on aggression and uncertainty rather than acceptance and enthusiasm caused a lot of problems in the legal system. Focusing on getting a confession in order to speedily apprehend an offender rather than obtaining accurate and reliable account from the suspects, victims or witnesses in order to achieve good quality information during an investigative process could be damaging in the sense that suspects, victims and witnesses especially vulnerable suspects would be prone to be apprehended for offenses which they did not commit. In order to minimize miscarriages of justice good questioning skills must be developed by investigators to attain an accurate and reliable account. Improvement in technology and Forensic evidence has helped in reducing cases of miscarriages of justice. For example the use of DNA which could help in determining the actual suspect, CCTV which shows a recording of what happened at a particular venue at a certain time and also the use of lie detectors which could be used to determine if the suspect is lying. Investigators should also tend to be sensitive when interviewing a vulnerable suspect, victims and witnesses as this would go a long way in preventing future miscarriages of justice. Above all, investigative interview as improved over the years through the introduction of different Acts such as The Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure (1978-1981) which brought about wide ranging protections for suspects. Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) focused on the use of tape recorders when interviewing a suspect with the aim of reducing the violence and verballing of suspects. The PEACE approach brought about preparing and planning an interview before commencement, engage and explain to the witness or suspect or victims the aim of the interview, expectations and the proc edure in which the interview would be carried out, the process of account retrieval, maintaining rapport and preventing negative reactions from suspect while bringing the interview to a close and evaluating the product of the interview. Trainings were also organized for investigator in order to enhance questioning skill by using enhanced cognitive interviews, conversation management techniques. Interviewing supervisory policy was also introduced to aid increase in the quality of the information received during the interviews and identifies areas where improvements are required. This study has shown that investigative interviewing is of paramount importance in the legal system and in order to achieve these investigators must constantly improve in their interviewing skills. Improvements in investigative interviewing to be effective and ethical has helped to reduce the cases of miscarriages of justice

How to be a good son or daughter Essay

In Vietnam, children are considered God’s gifts. A mother gives birth, but children’s characters come from God. Also their personalities are influenced by the society around them. That fact is why some nice parents don’t have good children, or some people are good sons or daughters even though their parents are bad. A good son or daughter should have certain qualities. Being hard working, sympathetic, and respectful of parents are the most important qualities of a good son or daughter. First of all, a good son or daughter should be a hard working person. A good child usually makes parents happy, and parents are happy when their children do what they are supposed to do. For example, if a child is a student, she is supposed to study hard. If she studies hard, whether she gets good grade or not, her parents are pleased with her. In addition, in Vietnam we value children as good sons or daughters when they do not make their parents worry about them. For instance, a boy after graduation from a university got a job and worked hard. Although he did not get a good—paying job, he earned enough to take care of himself. That boy is a good son because he is self—reliant and his parents don’t have to worry about him. Being hard working has remained the same over time in my culture. Additionally, to be sympathetic is one of the most important qualities of a good child. Parents who have to work hard to feed their children are usually tired after a long day. As a result, they sometimes get angry easily and may overreact with their children very small mistakes. If their children were sympathetic, they would understand and would not hate or think that parents don’t love them. Moreover, if sons or daughters understand their parents’ frustration, they know that they should help their parents do what they can do. For instance, elementary school students can clean up their room by themselves, and older children can help their parents wash dishes after dinners. In Vietnam a middle school girl even takes care of her sisters and brothers, or makes lunch when her parents are busy at work. Furthermore, much understanding older children can listen to their parents and can share their stories. Adults who are stressful need someone who can listen to them. That kind of behavior becomes more and more common in Vietnam. These days, conversations between parents and children are not only for parents to understand their children but also for children to understand their parents. The final and also the most important quality of a good child is to be respectful of his or her parents. This is the most valuable quality in Vietnam. If you respect your parents, you love them and obey them. Children who are respectful of their parents understand that they have responsibilities to take care of parents when they get sick or get older. Also they have responsibilities to please their parents or make them happy. In order to do that, Children will try to work hard and to understand their parents. As you can see, this final quality is the most important quality, and it also concludes two others qualities. To sum up, a child needs three important qualities to be a good son or daughter: hard working, sympathetic, and respectful of parents. Because people on Vietnam value relationships with family members, you must be a good child to be a good human being. Consequently, these qualities are also the most important qualities of a good human being.

Organizational Culture and Leadership Style on Job Satisfaction Level of Managers in SME, Penang Essay

The complex society today has its benchmark of goals and fulfillment that should be achieved by individuals. This set of goals and fulfillment includes securing a good job, preferably with a good pay and hopefully, with job satisfaction. What is job satisfaction? Job satisfaction is how content an satisfaction? Small and Medium Enterprise Corporation Malaysia, SMECORP census report show in 2011, total have 645,136 SMEs in Malaysia. Penang occupied 6.3%from the total. In Malaysia SME total have 3.6million employees, which Malaysia, mployees, contributed a lot of job opportunities to Malaysians. 6.3% of 3.6million is about 3.6million 230,000 employees working in Penang SME. SMEs play an important role in all economies in the world by contributing 80 percent of global economic growth (Jutla, et al., 2002). The importance of SMEs in developing a nation must not be taken lightly and be underestimated (Ragesh et al., 2010; Noor Hazlina & Seet, 2009). The contribution of SMEs on the various Asian nations’ Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is significant as shown in the Table 1 as follows: As indicated in Table 1, more than 90% of the business establishments (except Singapore) are mainly SMEs. These SMEs provides job opportunities for more than 40% of their workforce. Table 3: International SME Development and Growth Source: Malaysia SME Annual Report 2007. Research Gap From the pass many studies (Aria Hassan, 2010; Block, L. 2003; Daft, R. L. 2005; Drucker, P.F. 1999; Harris, L. C. and Ogbonna, E. 2001), it showed some significant relationship between organizational culture and job satisfaction; leadership style and job satisfaction. Not easy to find direct study three variable relationships together. However, another gap to be observed job satisfaction research mainly is oversea research. Even in Malaysia research also didn’t find a very specific research on Penang, SME manager on their job satisfaction base on two independent variables, organizational culture and leadership styles (Harris, L. C. and Ogbonna, E. 2001; Hsu, H. Y. 2009; Kim, S. 2002; Lee, H. Y. 2008; Lee, T. W. and Mowday, R. T. 1989; Li, Y. C. 2004; Rashid, M. Z. A., Sambasivan, M. and Johari, J. 2003 )    Research Problem In facing a variety of challenges, knowledge generation and dissemination are more critical than they had in the past. Drucker (1999) pointed out that personal know-how and tacit knowledge are not stored within an organization; in contrast, this knowledge is maintained by employees. According to past research, managers presented a high turnover rate in the SME industry, for example, Hu et al. (2005) found that the managers in electronics SME had the second highest rate of turnover among all managers in other industry and the rate of turnover was 42% of SME managers expected to remain in their current job for 3 years, 28% anticipated that they would keep the same job for 3-6 years and only 6% planned to remain in the same job for over 10 years. Past studies show that a positive corporate culture and effective leadership styles can enhance organizational commitment and job satisfaction (Ogbonna and Harris, 2000; Lok and Crawford, 2004). With a fit between positive organizational culture and suitable leadership style in the organization, a lasting success in business performance can be achieved. Very few attempts have been made to examine the three variables (organization culture, leadership styles and job satisfaction) in an integrated way. Therefore the fundamental issue guiding this study is to look more specifically on organizational culture and leadership styles and their effect on the job satisfaction of SME managers working in local Penang SME organizations in Malaysia. Research Questions This research attempts to examine the influence of organizational cultures and leadership styles on job satisfaction of SME managers in Penang, Malaysia. In examining the relations, the main research questions are: 1. What is the job satisfaction level of managers in the SME, Penang? 2. Are they satisfied with their current job? 3. To what extent the 2 factors affect job satisfaction of managers in the SME, Penang? 4. What is the moderating effect of age in the job satisfaction? Objectives of the Research The objectives of this research are to examine the association between different types of organizational cultures and leadership styles on job satisfaction of SME managers in Penang. The specific objectives of this research are to: To assess the job satisfaction level of managers in SME Company in Penang. To study the impact of these 2 factors affects the job satisfaction of the managers in SME Company in Penang. To examine whether age has any moderating effect on the job satisfaction of the managers in SME company in Penang. Significance and contribution of the study This study intends to contribute to the existing knowledge base, in particular the influence of organizational cultures and leadership styles on job satisfaction of the SME Manager in Penang. It is noted that even with the literature found from various databases, only a handful looked into the relationship of organizational cultures and leadership styles on job satisfaction of professionals. Very few attempts have been made to examine the three variables in SME Penang (Organizational culture, leadership styles and job satisfaction) in an integrated way. With increasing globalization, greater knowledge of the interaction of these factors on SME managers working in small and medium industry organizations can be beneficial. Thus, upon gathering the data, finding effective methods in managing SME managers are crucial in order to achieve a high level of innovation performance by SME organizations in Penang. The significance of this research can be summarized per below: 1) Contribute to the literature review on the relationship of organizational cultures and leadership styles on job satisfaction SME in Penang. 2) Able to identify types of organizational cultures and leadership styles adopted by SME in Penang. 3) Determine job satisfaction level of SME manager in Penang. 6 4) Identify effective cultures and leadership styles in managing SME managers in Penang. Definition of terms 1.7.1 Organization Cultures There are a number of definitions of organizational cultures that refer to norms of behavior and shared values among a group of members in an organization. According to Conner (1992), organizational cultures can be defined as the â€Å"interrelationship of shared beliefs behaviors and assumptions that are acquired over time by members of an institution†. In fact, cultures dominate in a way that impacts employee interaction, organizational functioning and eventually influences all decision making (Graham &Nafukho, 2007). Schein (1985) integrated the concept of assumptions, adaptations, perceptions and learning and then comprehensively defined organizational cultures as patterns of basic assumptions invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with the problems of external adaptation and internal integration that all works well enough to be considered valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. Culture can also be expressed through the organization’s myths, heroes, legends, stories, jargon, rites and rituals. Corporate culture is a key component in the achievement of an organization’s mission and strategies, the improvement of organizational effectiveness and the management of change 7 (Samuel, 2006). A corporate culture can work for an organization to improve performance or against it by creating barriers that prevent the attainment of goals. However, it can be corrected by providing guidance on what is expected by conveying a sense of identity and purpose of unity to members, facilitating the generation of commitment and shaping behavior. 1.7.2 Leadership & Leadership Styles According to Stogdill (1963), different people will interpret leadership differently based on the individual perspective; there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept. Stogdill stated that the term leadership is a relatively a recent addition to the English language and it was used only for about two hundred years ago, although the term leader from which it was derived appeared as early as A.D1300. Leadership has been defined in terms of individual traits, behavior, influence over other people, interaction patterns, role relationships, occupation of an administrative position and perception by others regarding legitimacy of influence. (Yukl, 2006). Leadership is an interaction between two or more members of a group that often involves a structuring or restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of members. Some other definitions are as follows: 1) Leadership is â€Å"the behavior of an individual when he is directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal.† (Hemphill & Coons, 1957). 8 2) Leadership is â€Å"an interaction between persons in which one presents information of a sort and in such a manner that the other becomes convinced that his outcome will be improved if he behaves in the manner suggested or desired† (Jacobs, 1970). 3) Leadership is â€Å"the initiation and maintenance of structure in expectation and interaction† (Stogdill, 1974). Job Satisfaction Locke (1969) defining job satisfaction as â€Å"the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job as achieving or facilitating the achievement of one’s job values†. Spector (1985) defined it as â€Å"how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which people like or dislike their jobs. Schmidt (2007) stated that job satisfaction is a reflection of an individual’s behavior that leads to attractive outcomes and is typically measured in degrees of multiple perceptions using multiple constructs or categories. Overall, job satisfaction is associated with an employee satisfaction from both psychological and physical perspectives. Thus, job satisfaction is recognized as a complex construct that includes both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. (Herzberg, 1959). He also identified the intrinsic as derived from internal job-related rewards such as recognition, achievement, advancement and responsibility. Extrinsic factors result from external environment-related rewards such as salary, policies, and interpersonal relations in supervision and working conditions. Spector (1985) identified nine subscales for the Job Satisfaction 9 Survey (JSS): pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating conditions, co-workers, nature of work and communication. 1.7.4 SME Manager SME manager can be explained in 2 parts- SME and the manager. SME is the industry and manager is the position in an organization. Small and medium enterprises or SMEs, also called small and medium-sized enterprises and small and medium-sized businesses, SMBs. SMEs are companies whose headcount or turnover falls below certain limits. The manager is an individual who is in charge of a certain group of tasks, or a certain subset of a company. A manager often has a staff of people who report to him or her. Job Satisfaction underpinning theory 1.8.1 Herzberg Job Satisfaction Theory: Herzberg developed his theory that there are two dimensions to job satisfaction: motivation and â€Å"hygiene†. Hygiene issues, according to Herzberg, cannot motivate employees but can minimize dissatisfaction, if handled properly. In other words, they can only dissatisfy if they are absent or mishandled. Hygiene topics include company policies, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations and working conditions. They are issues related to the employee’s environment. Motivators, on the other hand, create satisfaction by fulfilling individuals’ needs for meaning and personal growth. They are issues such as achievement, 10 recognition, the work itself, responsibility and advancement. Once the hygiene areas are addressed, said Herzberg, the motivators will promote job satisfaction and encourage production. (Christina M. Stello, 2011) 2.0 Literature Review In this chapter, a literature review on the independent variable, organizational culture and leadership styles, also the dependent variable, job satisfaction. 2.1 Independent variable – Organizational Culture Organizational culture is generally seen as a set of key values, assumptions, understandings and norms that are shared by members of an organization and taught to new members as correct (Daft, 2005). It is argued that organizational culture may be the critical key that managers can use to direct the course of their firms (Smircich, 1983). A culture creates distinctions between one organization and others, conveys a sense of identity for its members, facilitates commitment towards the organization’s goals, enhances the stability of the social system, reduces ambiguity and serves as a control mechanism that guides and shapes the attitudes and behavior of employees. However, a culture can also become a liability when it becomes too strongly entrenched within the norms, values and mindsets of the employees and resist changes. A culture can also become a barrier to change, diversity and other transformations required for the organization to adapt in today’s dynamic, 11 globalized business environment. The study of organizational culture can take on a multitude of aspects. Robbins (2005) elaborated that there are seven primary characteristics that, in aggregate, capture the essence of an organization’s culture: innovation and risk taking, attention to detail, outcome orientation, people orientation, team orientation, aggressiveness and stability. Each of these characteristics can exist on a continuum from low to high. Daft (2005) discussed on the three levels of corporate culture, with each level becoming less obvious, i.e. visible, expressed values and underlying assumptions and deep beliefs. Culture can also be determined by its strength, which is the degree of agreement among employees about the importance of specific values and ways of doing things. A strong culture is one which core values are both intensely held and widely shared, and hence have greater impact on employee behavior. Research has found that a strong culture is linked to high agreement among members, increases behavioral consistency builds cohesiveness, loyalty and organizational commitment and more importantly, reduces turnover (Robbins, 2005). According to Wallach (1983), an organization’s culture can be a combination of three categories – bureaucratic, innovative or supportive – to varying degrees. Wallach’s (1983) framework is adapted for the purpose of this study. Wallach (1983) states that the Organizational Culture Index (OCI) profiles culture on the three stereotypical dimensions and can be derived from the combination of these three dimensions. 12 A bureaucratic culture is hierarchical and compartmentalized. There are clear lines of responsibility and authority. Work is organized and this culture is usually based on control and power. Such organizations are stable, cautious, usually mature, power-oriented, established, solid, regulated, ordered, structured, procedural and hierarchical. An innovative culture refers to a creative, results-oriented, challenging work environment. It is characterized as being entrepreneurial, ambitious, stimulating, driven and risk-taking. A supportive culture exhibits teamwork and a peopleoriented, encouraging, trusting work environment. These places are warm and people are generally friendly, fair and helpful to each other. Supportive cultures are characterized as open, harmonious, trusting, safe, equitable, sociable, relationships-oriented, humanistic, collaborative and likened to an extended family. Wallach (1983) further elaborated that an employee can be more effective in his or her current job and realizes his or her best potentials, when there is a match between the individual’s motivation and the organizational culture. For instance, by using McClelland’s three social motivators: a person with a high need of achievement will thrive in an innovative culture, an affinitive person will fare well in a supportive culture and a power-oriented person will perform best in a bureaucratic culture. This has significant implications in recruitment, management, motivation, development and retention of employees. Few published studies describing the corporate culture of Malaysian companies, which are generally more or less similar to other fast-growing, competitive, 13 developing Asian countries. Government offices are generally considered to be bureaucratic, while publicly-listed and private companies are more entrepreneurial in nature. This is exemplified in a study done by Rashid et al. (2003), where companies listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange were found to be predominantly competitive and value risk-taking, demanding goals and market superiority. Another study by Rashid et al. (2004) showed that among manufacturers in the country, many had mercenary culture, which emphasized on strategy and winning in the marketplace. To balance this, there exists to a lesser degree consensus, network and supportive cultures within Malaysian companies, consistent with the cultural values of Malaysian managers. Tradition, loyalty, teamwork and personal commitment are among some of the values prevalent in Malaysian companies. Independent variable – Leadership styles Daft (2005) defined leadership as an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes. Over the course of time, a number of dimensions or facets of leadership behavior have been developed and applied as researchers continue to discover what contributes to leadership success and failures. These included, among others, autocratic versus democratic, task-oriented versus peopleoriented, and the contingency approaches. The first studies on leadership styles conducted by Kurt Lewin and his associates in 1970s, identified the autocratic, democratic and delegative leadership styles. An autocratic leader is one who centralizes authority and derives power from position, control of rewards, and coercion. A democratic leader style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making process but the leader maintains the final decision making authority. A delegative leader style, on the other hand, delegates authority to others, relies on subordinates’ knowledge for completion of tasks and depends on subordinate respect for influence. Subsequently, a series of studies on leadership styles (e.g. By Ohio State University, University of Michigan and University of Texas) were designed and conducted in the 1950s. This resulted in the development of reliable questionnaires (e.g. Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire, LBDQ) and models (e.g. Leadership Grid by Blake and Mouton) that would, in time, dominate much of leadership-related research and literature for years to come. Overall, the research into the behavior approach culminated in two major types of leadership behaviors – people-oriented and task-oriented. People-oriented leadership, which is equivalent to the consideration (Ohio State University), employee-centered (University of Michigan) and concern for people (University of Texas) focuses on the human needs of subordinates, respects their ideas and feelings and places importance on establishing mutual trust. Task-oriented leadership, which is equivalent to initiating structure (Ohio State University), job-centered (University of Michigan) and concern for production (University of Texas), focus on directing activities towards efficiency, cost15 cutting, and scheduling, with an emphasis on goal achievements and work facilitation. Theories of leadership then evolved to adopt a contingency approach when researchers failed to find universal leader traits or behaviors that would determine effective leadership. Following this school of thought, research focused on the situation in which leadership occurred. Leadership styles can be contingent upon situational variables, the nature of the followers and the leaders themselves. Many theories have been put forward, including Fiedler’s contingency theory, Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory, the Vroom-Jago contingency model, Leader-Member Exchange theory and the Path-Goal theory. Depending on the researcher’s conceptions and preferences, most leadership studies have been carried out in various ways. Nearly all leadership research can be classified into powerful influence, behavior, trait approach and situational approach. Currently, the most influential contingency approach to leadership is the Path- Goal theory (Robbins, 2005). This theory was developed by Robert House and extracts the key elements of the Ohio State leadership research on initiating structure and consideration, and the expectancy theory of motivation. The theory states that the main goal of the leader is to help subordinates attain the subordinates’ goals effectively and to provide them with the necessary direction and support to achieve their own goals as well as those of the organization (Silverthorne, 2001). In this theory, the leader increases follower motivation by either; (1) Clarifying the follower’s path to the rewards that are available or 16 (2) Increasing the rewards that the follower values and desires. Path clarification means that the leader works with subordinates to help them identify and learn the behaviors that will lead to successful task accomplishment and organizational rewards. Increasing rewards means that the leader talks with subordinates to learn which rewards are important to them, i.e. whether they desired intrinsic rewards from the work itself, or extrinsic rewards such as promotions. The leader’s job is to increase personal payoffs to subordinates for goal attainment and make the paths to the payoffs clear and easy to travel. The Path-Goal theory suggests a fourfold classification of leader styles: directive, supportive and participative styles. It is assumed that leaders are flexible and that the same leader can display any or all of these behaviors depending on the situation. Directive leadership tells subordinates exactly what they are supposed to do. Leader behavior includes planning, making schedules, setting performance goals and behavior standards and stressing adherence to rules and regulations. Mehta et al. (2003) added that this leadership style provides specific direction to subordinate work activity by organizing and defining the task environment, assigning the necessary functions to be performed, specifying rules, regulations and procedures to be followed in accomplishing tasks, clarifying expectations, scheduling work to be done, establishing communication networks and evaluating work group performance. Directive leadership behavior is similar to the initiating structure or task-oriented leadership style. 17 Supportive leadership shows concern for subordinates’ well-being and personal needs in which the leaders are open, friendly and approachable. The leader creates a team climate and treat subordinates equally. Mehta et al. (2003) further elaborated that a supportive leadership style is one in which the leader creates a facilitative task environment of psychological support, mutual trust and respect, helpfulness and friendliness. Supportive leadership is similar to the consideration or people-oriented leadership described earlier. Participative leadership consults with subordinates about decisions. Leader style includes asking for opinions and suggestions, encouraging participation in decision making, meeting, discussion and written suggestions, similar to the selling style in the Hersey and Blanchard model mentioned previously. Various studies in organizational behavior have found that allowing subordinates to participate in decision-making leads to increased motivation (Mehta e t al., 2003). Achievement-oriented leadership sets clear and challenging goals for subordinates. Leader behavior stresses high-quality performance and improvement over current performance. Achievement-oriented leaders also show confidence in subordinates and assist them in learning how to achieve high goals. The two situational contingencies in the Path-Goal theory are the personal characteristics of group members and the work environment. Personal characteristics can include subordinates’ locus of control, experience, perceived ability, skills, needs and motivations. Work environment contingencies can include the degree of task structure, the nature of the formal authority system and the work group itself. Task structure describes the extent to which tasks are defined and have explicit job descriptions and work procedures. The formal authority system includes the amount of legitimate power used by leaders and the extent to which policies and rules constrain employees’ behavior. Work group characteristics consist of the educational level of subordinates and the quality of relationships among them. The outcome of matching the right leadership behavior with the right situation while taking into consideration the various subordinate and work environments contingencies will result in favorable outcomes such as increased effort, improved satisfaction and performance (Daft, 2005). The study of leadership behaviors as conceptualized under the Path-Goal theory has been applied in many types of researches and has been generally accepted as a good measure of subordinate’s perceptions of leadership style based on participative, supportive and directive. For example, in the context of international marketing channels (Mehta et al., 2003), small and middle-sized firms (Li, 2004), company managers (Silverthorne, 2001), steel industry (Downey et al. 1975), automotive industry (Chang et al., 2003) and market orientation of UK firms (Harris and Ogbonna, 2001). Researchers of marketing channels in the distribution and logistics industry have attempted to show the path-goal theory’s usefulness as a strategy to 19 secure the compliance of channel members and have conceptually and empirically linked it to channel related phenomena such as manifest conflict, cooperation, channel efficiency and effectiveness, role clarity, role conflict, role ambiguity, and channel member satisfaction (Mehta et al., 1996) Not everyone agrees that a particular style of leadership will result in the most effective form of organizational behavior. Different styles were needed for different situations and each leader needs to know when to exhibit a particular approach. No one leadership style is ideal for every situation since a leader may have the knowledge and skills to act effectively in one situation but may not emerge as effectively in a different situation (Rad and Yarmohammadian, 2006). Leaders affect their subordinates both directly through their interactions and also through the organization’s culture (Li, 2004). Past research on corporate leadership in Malaysia frequently focused on its unique, multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and collectivist society. It is acknowledged that leadership in Malaysia is deeply entrenched and connected to its diverse Asian culture, traditions and values. Hence, commonly-accepted leadership theories from the west and how it is thought to affect other organizational behavior factors may not be directly transferable to the Malaysian context. Organizational success in obtaining its goals and objectives depends on managers and their leadership style. By using appropriate leadership styles, managers can affect employee job satisfaction, commitment and productivity.       Many factors related to turnover have been identified by previous research to be significantly correlated with job satisfaction (Chang, Choi, & Kim, 2008; Moore, 2000). In a review of past literature, Rad and Yarmohammadian (2006) justified the need to investigate job satisfaction is exemplified in the seemingly observed relationship between the levels of job dissatisfaction, absenteeism, grievance expression, tardiness, low morale and high turnover. Thus, job satisfaction is an immediate antecedent of intention to leave the workplace and turnover. Unsatisfied workers will leave their jobs more than their satisfied colleagues. Furthermore, more satisfied employees have more innovative activities in continuous quality improvement and more participation in decisionmaking in organizations. 21 2.4 Relationship between organization culture, leadership styles & job satisfaction Research involving two or all three subjects of organizational culture, leadership styles and job satisfaction has attracted considerable interest from both academics and practitioners. Examples of a few key studies in the area are: (1) Corporate culture and leadership style in United Kingdom (Ogbonna and Harris, 2000), Canada and Korea (Dastmalchian et al., 2000). (2) Organizational culture and leadership style on job satisfaction and commitment (Lok and Crawford, 1999, 2004). (3) Leadership style and organizational culture to effect change (Brooks, 1996; Smith, 2003). (4) Leadership and organizational culture in a private organization toward performance (Block, 2003). Despite numerous references to a relationship between organizational culture and leadership styles in many parts of organization theory and research, little systematic research has been conducted to investigate the link between the nature of the relationship of these two concepts and their effect on job satisfaction. Since these two concepts are important in the functioning of an organization (Lok and Crawford, 2002, 2004; Ogbonna and Harris, 2000; Fiedler, 1996; Schein, 1992), further research is required to provide the insight information to the leaders and organizations. 22 On the other hand, previous research on corporate culture in Malaysia (Kamal, 1988; Jaina, Md. Zabid, Anantharaman, 1997) focused more on different ethnic backgrounds (Malays, Chinese, and Indians) and used Hofstede’s model of organizational culture (Hofstede, 1980). Job satisfaction is recognized as an important topic in organizational culture because of its relevance to the physical and emotional health of employees (Oshagbemi, 1999). Although a considerable number of researchers have argued that there is a constant interplay between organizational culture and leadership, there are limited empirical studies examining the relation between leadership and culture as well as their joint effect on important organizational outcomes (Trice and Beyer, 1993). More importantly, research has found that the harmonious combination of appropriate leadership styles with certain types of organizational cultures can positively influence employees’ performance (Harris and Ogbonna, 2000). According to Yousef (2000), the relationship between leadership styles and job satisfaction has received a lot of attention in the past research however findings have been mixed (Savery, 1994; Yousef, 2000). Research therefore does not directly link employee satisfaction to a specific leadership style. Instead, many suggest that leadership style needs to adapt to the culture or situation as it attempts to reduce employee dissatisfaction. Based on a comprehensive literature review by Yousef (2000), several researchers have also looked into the relationship between leadership styles and job performance. The findings were inconsistent as well. A couple of 23 studies in the steel industry and electronic meeting systems reported higher satisfaction and performance levels under directive leadership style when given a highly structured task, while supportive leadership style is preferred for unstructured problems (Kahai et al., 1997). Results from investigations of the antecedents of commitment have not been entirely consistent (Yousef, 2000).   Organizational culture plays an important role as well in generating commitment and enhancing performance (Lok and Crawford, 2001). In particular, studies in various industries and countries showed that innovative and supportive cultures had strong positive effects on commitment and job satisfaction, while bureaucratic cultures had a negative impact (Lok and Crawford, 1999; Rashid et al., 2003; Wallach, 1983). Results from various organizations in the United Arab Emirates suggest (in support of many western studies) that those who perceive their superiors as adopting consultative or participative leadership behavior are more committed to their organizations, more satisfied with their jobs and their performance is high. When employees are dissatisfied at work, they are less committed and will look for other opportunities to quit. If opportunities are unavailable, they may emotionally or mentally â€Å"withdraw† from the organization. Thus the job satisfaction is an important attitude in assessing the employee’s intention to quit and the overall contribution of the employee to the organization. 24 Rashid et al. (2003) surveyed over 200 companies listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange. Combining these findings with studies from other countries, both western and non-western, it is reasonable to expect that different types of leadership styles and organizational cultures do affect organizational commitment, which in turn, influences both job satisfaction and employee performance. Samad (2005) studied 584 managerial-level of employees in Telekom Malaysia and reported that job satisfaction did play a positive moderating role in the relationship between organizational commitment and job performance. However, Leong et al. (1994) found a weak correlation between the two variables, Lee and Mowday (1989) found negligible relationship and Wright (1997) reported a negative relationship between the two. In summary, many studies across different industries and geographical regions revealed strong correlations between organizational cultures with job satisfaction. There are very few relevant studies in the Malaysian context have been published to date but through our findings, no research being done on the relationship of organizational cultures, leadership styles and job satisfaction of SME managers working in SME industry, which has significant contribution to the Penang. 2.5 Theoretical Framework For the purpose of this research proposal, Hsu (2009) conceptualization of the relationships between organizational culture, organizational commitment and job satisfaction together with Lee (2008) study on â€Å"Association between 25 organizational culture and leadership behavior and organizational commitment, job satisfaction and employee performance- A Malaysian Perspective† performance are partially adapted. Based on the literature review, the theoretical framework per Figure 1 below; igure Figure 1: Research Framework From the literature and framework above, the following research hypothesis derived. H1: Organizational Culture affects Job Satisfaction of the employees. Job H2: Leadership Style affects Job Satisfaction of the employees. H3: Age has a moderating effect on the level of Job Satisfaction Research Methodology Research Instrument This study adopts a quantitative approach and the data solely depends on the primary data. The instrument to be used to collect the data in this research is a set of questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of two main sections – Section A and B. Section A is regarded respondent’s profile, such as Gender, Age Group, Position in this organization, Highest Level of Academic Qualification and Total Year of Working Experience in this company. Section B is pertaining to the measurement of variables under studied. There are total three variables in this study – one dependent variable which is Job Satisfaction, and two independent variables which are Perceived Organization Culture and Perceived Leadership Style. The Job Satisfaction is measured with ten items, and Organization Culture and Leadership Style, they are assessed by 20 and 15 items respectively. This is self-administered questionnaire. Respondents will be asked to indicate their agreement on each item on a 5-points Likert scale. The scale points are 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Neutral, 4=Agree, and 5=Strongly Agree. A set of questionnaire is appended in Appendix A for reference.    Population and Sample The population for this study composed of all managers in the SME in manufacturing sector companies located in Penang. A two layer sampling method will be employed in selecting the respondents for this study. In the first layer, the companies that formed the respondents will be selected using a simple random sampling method. The list of all the SME in the manufacturing section publishes on the SME website will be used as the population. Each company will be assigned a number and random numbers will be generated to select 380 companies to form the participants. In the second layer, 5 sets of questionnaire will be given to the Human Resources managers of the 380 companies selected. The questionnaire will then be distributed to the managers in their company. The selection of managers is at the discretion of the Human Resources managers. 3.3 Pilot Test Test Pilot is a trial run of procedures and instruments that you plan to use. Pilot test will be conducted with 50 managers of SME in the manufacturing sector randomly picked from the population to ensure that the instrument used is reliable. The returned data on the questionnaire will be entered into the SPSS statistical software. A reliability test will be run and Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient value will be examined. It is suggested that Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.7 and above is considered good reliability of the measure. However, if the Cronbach’s Alpha value below than 0.7, then we will look further into the value of 28 â€Å"Cronbach’s Alpha if item Deleted†. We will screen through all the items to determine which item if this item deleted will improve the Cronbach’s Alpha value. If necessary, we will add in additional items to enhance the reliability of the measure. In addition, we will also examine the value of â€Å"Corrected item-Total Correlation†. The value of 0.4 to 0.6 is considered acceptable. This statistic can be used to test validity of the measure. If the value is too small such as 0.05, it means this item is no correlated to other items. In other words, this item is not relevant in this measure. Contrary, if the value is too high such as 0.8, then it means this item is too correlated with other items or it is duplicated with other items. The pilot test will be repeated to achieve the acceptable level of reliability and validity. 3.4 Method of Analysis This study will employ descriptive statistic and an inference statistic approach to test the hypothesis and achieve the objectives of this research. However, before we begin any actual data analysis, we will perform the goodness of measure test. 3.4.1 Goodness of Measure Reliability is one of the elements to ensure the goodness of measure. It is suggested that Cronbach’s alpha coefficient should be above 0.7 for reliability to consider the scale as consistent scale. As presented in the Pilot Test, the 29 reliability will be assessed and enhanced before the actual data collection and analysis. In other words, the goodness of data has been pre-assessed. 3.4.2 Descriptive Statistic A descriptive statistic table will be generated using the SPSS statistical software. The table will report the total numbers of respondent and the demographic statistics, mean values and standard deviation of Job Satisfaction, Organization Culture and Leadership Style. These are the basis statistics to describe the samples. From this descriptive statistics, specifically from the mean score of Job Satisfaction, we will know the satisfaction level of managers of the SME manufacturing section in Penang. This statistic is able to achieve the first objective of this research – To assess the job satisfaction level of managers in SME companies in Penang. 3.4.3 Inferences Statistic Various statistical analysis techniques will be employed in this study. These techniques are multivariate analysis and hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Each technique has its own purpose in related to the objective of the research and hypothesis testing. To test the following research hypothesis, multivariate analysis will be carried out. 30 H1: Organizational Culture affects Job Satisfaction of the employees. H2: Leadership Style affects Job Satisfaction of the employees. The outcome of this data analysis will help us achieve the second objective – To study the impact of these 2 factors affects the job satisfaction of the managers in SME companies in Penang. To test on the following hypothesis, we will carry out the hierarchical multiple regression analysis. H3: Age has a moderating effect on the level of Job Satisfaction. With the outcome of this test, the third objective of this study will also can be achieved – To examine whether age has any moderating effects in the job satisfaction of the managers in SME companies in Penang. The above data analysis plan and its purpose of each test in regards to the research objective can be summarized in the table below.    Dastmalchian, A., Lee, S. and Ng. I. (2000). 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(2002), â€Å"Participative management and job satisfaction: Lessons for management leadership†, Public Administration Review, vol. 62 no. 2, pp. 23141. Lee, H. Y. (2008), â€Å"The association between organizational culture and leadership behavior and organizational commitment, job satisfaction and employee performance – A Malaysian Perspective†. Faculty of Business and Accountancy, Universiti Malaya, Dissertation (M.B.A.). Lee, T. W. and Mowday, R. T. (1989), â€Å"Voluntary leaving an organization: An empirical investigation of Steers and Mowdays’s Model of Turnover†, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 30, pp. 721-43. Leong, S. M., Randoll, D. N. and Cote, J. A. (1994), â€Å"Exploring the organizational commitment-performance†, Journal of Business Research, vol. 29 no. 1, pp. 57-63. Li, Y. C. (2004), â€Å"Examining the effect of organizational culture and leadership behaviors on organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and job performance at small and middle-sized firms in Taiwan†, Journal of American Academy of Organization Lok, P. and Crawford, J. (2001), â€Å"Antecedents of organizational commitment and the mediating role of job satisfaction†, Journal of Managerial Psychology, vol. 16 no. 7/8, pp. 594-613. Lok, P. and Crawford, J. (2004), â€Å"The effect of organizational culture & leadership style on job satisfaction and organizational commitment: A crossnational comparison†, Journal of Management Development, vol. 23 no. 4, pp. 321-38. Mehta, R., Dubinsky, A. J. and Anderson, R. E. (2003), â€Å"Leadership style, motivation and performance in international marketing channels: An empirical investigation of the USA, Finland and Poland†, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 37 no. 1/2, pp. 50-85. Mehta, R., Larsen, T. and Rosenbloom, B. 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Summary Of The Kite Runner - 955 Words

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He dealt with the struggle with himself for years after making Hassan and his father leave Amir’s home, He dealt with the struggle to win his father’s approval until his father died, and he struggled with God by the end of the book. In Khaled Hossenini’s novel, The Kit e Runner, Amir struggles with conflict from a mistake and a hardship from his childhood which effects him theRead MoreSummary Of The Kite Runner 1423 Words   |  6 PagesThe Kite Runner starts off in 2001, with Amir thinking back to his childhood. He specifically remembers the year 1975, and the story begins. Amir was only a boy in 1975, living in Kabul, Afghanistan with his father, Baba. Baba had two servants who lived on the property, Ali and Hassan. Baba and Ali have known each other for a long time and are very close. Hassan and Amir are around the same age so they play together, but Amir doesn’t always like Hassan. Rahim Khan, a friend of Baba, is also aroundRead MoreKite Runner Essay899 Words   |  4 PagesGena Narcisco Mrs. Sharpe Honors English 10 10/11/12 The Kite Runner Do you know that Afghanis play a game where they fight with kites? The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini describes kite fights between local Afghani kids, regardless of their social status. The main characters in this story that come from a higher socioeconomic level are Baba, a lawyer from the Pashtun tribe, and his son Amir. The main characters in this story that come from the lower socioeconomic level are Ali, a servant fromRead MoreThe Kite Runner By Khaled Hosseini1574 Words   |  7 PagesHosseini’s, The Kite Runner, is love. The Kite Runner follows Amir, the main character, finding redemption from a series of traumatic childhood events. Throughout the novel, the author uses many powerful symbols to represent the complexity of love that many experience in relationships. The use of the kite, the pomegranate tree, the slingshot, and the cleft lip all tie together to underscore a universal theme of love. To begin, the most explicit symbol present in the book is the kite. The kite representsRead MoreThe Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini977 Words   |  4 PagesFacts about the author Khaled Hosseini was born in March 4th, 1965 in Kabul, Afghanistan and he is an Afghan-American novelist. He debuted in the year 2003 and released his book called â€Å"The Kite Runner†. The book opened to widespread critical acclaim and strong commercial success worldwide. And for this kind of novel he received Alex Award, Boeke Prize, ALA Notable Book and a lot of other prestigious awards. He has then authored several other books in his career. There was no turning back for Khaled